The Exportation of the People’s Republic of China’s Surveillance Model: Artificial Intelligence, Social Credit, and its impact on Global Security and Human Rights
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.53732/rccsociales/e701202Keywords:
International security, human rights, artificial intelligence, surveillance, internet governance, data protectionAbstract
The People's Republic of China's (PRC) digital surveillance model, based on artificial intelligence (AI) and the social credit system (SCS), reshapes the balance between security and fundamental freedoms with global implications. This study examines its exportation and its impact on governance, international security, and human rights. A mixed-methods approach is employed, combining documentary analysis with quantitative data on the implementation of these technologies. The findings reveal the normalization of state surveillance, the consolidation of technological dependencies, and challenges for democratic stability. It is concluded that urgent international regulatory frameworks are needed to balance security with fundamental rights in the digital era. The rise of these systems raises questions about the future of privacy and individual autonomy, particularly in societies with weak institutional safeguards.
References
国务院关于重组社会信用体系建设部际联席会议的批复 (Approval of the State Council on the Restructuring of the Interministerial Conference for the Construction of the Social Credit System), Pub. L. No. 国函〔2012〕88号, State Council of the People's Republic of China (2012). https://www.pkulaw.com/chl/558cf12828e9f4d4bdfb.html?isFromV5=1
Adeyeye, A. D., & Grobbelaar, S. S. (2024). Analysis of the functional dynamics of innovation for inclusive development systems: An event history analysis of the Nigerian growth enhancement support scheme. Technology in Society, 79, 102716. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2024.102716
Amoore, L. (2020). Cloud Ethics: Algorithms and the attributes of ourselves and others. Duke University Press.
Aoyama, R. (2022). Continuity or change? China’s sweeping reforms under Xi Jinping. Journal of Contemporary East Asia Studies, 11(2), 191–194. https://doi.org/10.1080/24761028.2023.2197387
Barredo Arrieta, A., Díaz-Rodríguez, N., Del Ser, J., Bennetot, A., Tabik, S., Barbado, A., Garcia, S., Gil-Lopez, S., Molina, D., Benjamins, R., Chatila, R., & Herrera, F. (2020). Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI): Concepts, taxonomies, opportunities and challenges toward responsible AI. Information Fusion, 58, 82–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inffus.2019.12.012
Bergdahl, J., Latikka, R., Celuch, M., Savolainen, I., Soares Mantere, E., Savela, N., & Oksanen, A. (2023). Self-determination and attitudes toward artificial intelligence: Cross-national and longitudinal perspectives. Telematics and Informatics, 82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2023.102013
Bonsón, E., Torres, L., Royo, S., & Flores, F. (2012). Local e-government 2.0: Social media and corporate transparency in municipalities. Government Information Quarterly, 29(2), 123–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2011.10.001
Cancela-Outeda, C. (2024). The EU’s AI act: A framework for collaborative governance. Internet of Things. 27, 101291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iot.2024.101291
Castellanos-Claramunt, J. (2023). Sobre los desafíos constitucionales ante el avance de la Inteligencia Artificial. Una perspectiva nacional y comparada. Revista de Derecho Político, 118, 261–287. https://doi.org/10.5944/rdp.118.2023.39105
Chan, K. J. D., Papyshev, G., & Yarime, M. (2024). Balancing the tradeoff between regulation and innovation for artificial intelligence: An analysis of top-down command and control and bottom-up self-regulatory approaches. Technology in Society, 79, 102747. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2024.102747
Creemers, R. (2018). China’s Social Credit System: An Evolving Practice of Control. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3175792
Ding, J. (2018). Deciphering China’s AI dream: the context, components, capabilities, and consequences of China’s strategy to lead the world in AI. Future of Humanity Institute, University of Oxford.
Drexel, B., & Kelley, H. (2023). China is flirting with AI catastrophe: why accidents pose the biggest risk. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/china/china-flirting-ai-catastrophe
European Commission. (2021). Proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of The Council. Laying down harmonized rules on Artificial Intelligence (Artificial Intelligence Act) and amending certain Union Legislative Acts. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52021PC0206
Feldstein, S. (2019). The global expansion of AI surveillance. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2019/09/the-global-expansion-of-ai-surveillance?lang=en
Forno, R. (2024). What is Salt Typhoon? A security expert explains the chinese hackers and their attack on US Telecommunications Networks. UMBC. https://umbc.edu/stories/what-is-salt-typhoon-a-security-expert-explains-the-chinese-hackers-and-their-attack-on-us-telecommunications-networks/
Gomes Rêgo de Almeida, P., & Dos Santos Júnior, C. D. (2025). Artificial intelligence governance: Understanding how public organizations implement it. Government Information Quarterly, 42(1), 102003. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2024.102003
Goodman, B., & Flaxman, S. (2016). European union regulations on algorithmic decision making and a “right to explanation”. AI Magazine, 38(3), 50–57. https://doi.org/10.1609/aimag.v38i3.2741
Greitens, S. C., Lee, M., & Yazici, E. (2020). Counterterrorism and Preventive Repression: China’s Changing Strategy in Xinjiang. International Security, 44(3), 9–47. https://doi.org/10.1162/isec_a_00368
He, Q. (2023). The Integration of Outstanding Traditional Chinese Culture in English Teaching (中华优秀传统文化在英语教育中的融入). Modern Education Forum (现代教育论坛), 3(8). http://dx.doi.org/10.32629/mef.v3i8.2778
Knieps, G. (2024). Internet of Things, critical infrastructures, and the governance of cybersecurity in 5G network slicing. Telecommunications Policy, 48(10), 102867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2024.102867
Li, Y., Dai, J., & Cui, L. (2020). The impact of digital technologies on economic and environmental performance in the context of industry 4.0: A moderated mediation model. International Journal of Production Economics, 229, 107777. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2020.107777
Mac Síthigh, D., & Siems, M. (2019). The Chinese Social Credit System: A Model for Other Countries? The Modern Law Review, 82(6), 1034–1071. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2230.12462
Mayer-Schönberger, V., & Cukier, K. (2013). Big Data: A Revolution That Will Transform How We Live, Work, and Think. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Mozur, P., Kessel, J. M., & Chan, M. (24 abril 2019). Made in China, Exported to the World: The Surveillance State. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/24/technology/ecuador-surveillance-cameras-police-government.html
Neuberger, A. (2025, enero 15). Spy vs. AI: How Artificial Intelligence Will Remake Espionage. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/united-states/spy-vs-ai
Nguyen, V. Q., Lafrance, S., & Vu, T. C. (2023). China’s social credit system: a challenge to human rights. Revista de Direito, Estado e Telecomunicacoes, 15(2), 99–116. https://doi.org/10.26512/lstr.v15i2.44770
Oliveira, G. de L. T., Murton, G., Rippa, A., Harlan, T., & Yang, Y. (2020). China’s Belt and Road Initiative: Views from the ground. Political Geography, 82, 102225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2020.102225
Pearson, M. M., Rithmire, M., & Tsai, K. S. (2022). China’s Party-State Capitalism and International Backlash From Interdependence to Insecurity. International Security, 47(2), 135–176. https://doi.org/10.1162/isec_a_00447
Reynoso Vanderhorst, H., Heesom, D., & Yenneti, K. (2024). Technological advancements and the vision of a meta smart twin city. Technology in Society, 79, 102731. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2024.102731
Rocha Pino, M. J. (2017). Los proyectos de integración megarregional de China: el caso de la iniciativa Cinturón y Ruta (CYR). Anuario Mexicano de Derecho Internacional, 1(17), 547-589. https://doi.org/10.22201/iij.24487872e.2017.17.11045
Sánchez Chumpitaz, D. S., & Asmat Caro, G. L. (2024). Inversión extranjera en inteligencia artificial para la seguridad en Perú: un análisis desde APEC 2024. Política Internacional, (136), 114–136. https://doi.org/10.61249/pi.vi136.173
Sandbrink, J. B., Hobbs, H., Swett, J. L., Dafoe, A., & Sandberg, A. (2024). Risk-sensitive innovation: leveraging interactions between technologies to navigate technology risks. Science and Public Policy, 51(6), 1028-1041. https://doi.org/10.1093/scipol/scae043
Segal, A. (2025). China Has Raised the Cyber Stakes: The “Salt Typhoon” Hack Revealed America’s Profound Vulnerability. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/united-states/china-has-raised-cyber-stakes
Shum, N.-Y. E., & Lau, H.-P. B. (2024). Perils, power and promises: Latent profile analysis on the attitudes towards artificial intelligence (AI) among middle-aged and older adults in Hong Kong. Computers in Human Behavior: Artificial Humans, 2(2), 100091. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbah.2024.100091
Skare, M., Gavurova, B., & Blažević Burić, S. (2024). Artificial intelligence and wealth inequality: A comprehensive empirical exploration of socioeconomic implications. Technology in Society, 79, 102719. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2024.102719
Stanger, A., Kraus, J., Lim, W., Millman-Perlah, G., & Schroeder, M. (2024). Terra Incognita: The Governance of Artificial Intelligence in Global Perspective. Annual Review of Political Science, 27, 445–465. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-041322-042247
Tuzov, V., & Lin, F. (2024). Two paths of balancing technology and ethics: A comparative study on AI governance in China and Germany. Telecommunications Policy, 48(10), 102850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2024.102850
Vickers, E. (2022). Smothering Diversity: Patriotism in China’s School Curriculum under Xi Jinping. Journal of Genocide Research, 24(2), 158–170. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2021.1968142
Wang, M. (2021). China’s Techno-authoritarianism has gone global: Washington needs to offer an alternative. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/china/2021-04-08/chinas-techno-authoritarianism-has-gone-global
Wright, N. (2018). How Artificial Intelligence Will Reshape the Global Order: the coming competition between digital authoritarianism and liberal democracy. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/world/2018-07-10/how-artificial-intelligence-will-reshape-global-order
Wu, R., Esposito, C., & Evans, J. (2024). China’s Rising Leadership in Global Science. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2406.05917
Xi, J. (2014). Xi Jinping: The Governance of China. http://www.flp.com.cn
Yang, J., & Liu, W. (2024). Knowledge source switching under state interventions of latecomer regions: A case study of Shenzhen. Technology in Society, 79, 102730. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2024.102730
Zeng, J., & Glaister, K. W. (2018). Value creation from big data: Looking inside the black box. Strategic Organization, 16(2), 105–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/1476127017697510
Zhang, X., & Shaw, G. (2023). ‘Becoming’ a global leader: China’s evolving official media discourse in Xi’s New Era. Global Media and Communication, 19(3), 313–333. https://doi.org/10.1177/17427665231209617
Zhu, Z., Cerina, F., Chessa, A., Caldarelli, G., & Riccaboni, M. (2014). The Rise of China in the International Trade Network: A Community Core Detection Approach. PLOS One, 9(8), e105496 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0105496
Zuboff, S. (2019). The age of surveillance capitalism: The fight for a human future at the new frontier of power. PublicAffairs.
Additional Files
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Revista científica en ciencias sociales
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
1.png)
Todo el contenido de esta revista, está bajo 